Biblical Manuscripts
The manuscript witnesses to Scripture on Anakalypsis: 25 entries — Dead Sea Scrolls, Codex Sinaiticus, Codex Vaticanus, papyri, and more, with dates, contents, and significance.
Codex Sinaiticus
One of the two oldest near-complete manuscripts of the Greek Bible. The only ancient manuscript containing the complete New Testament. Discovered by Tischendorf at St. Catherine's Monastery, Sinai.
Aleph/01 · c. AD 330-360
Codex Vaticanus
Often considered the most reliable early text of the Greek Bible. Has been in the Vatican Library since at least 1475. Its text is closely related to P75.
B/03 · c. AD 300-325
Codex Alexandrinus
One of the earliest and most complete manuscripts of the Greek Bible. Particularly valued for its text of Revelation. Presented to King Charles I in 1627.
A/02 · c. AD 400-440
Codex Bezae Cantabrigiensis
The most important witness to the Western text-type. Contains many unique readings, especially in Luke-Acts, including the 'anti-Judaic' additions in Acts and the 'Golden Rule' in negative form. Named after Theodore Beza, who donated it to Cambridge in 1581.
D/05 · c. AD 400
Codex Washingtonianus (Freer Gospels)
Contains the 'Freer Logion,' a unique expansion after Mark 16:14 found in no other manuscript. One of the most important majuscule manuscripts discovered in the 20th century. Shows mixed text-types across different Gospel sections.
W/032 · c. AD 400-450
Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus
A palimpsest manuscript in which the biblical text was erased and overwritten with Syriac sermons of Ephrem in the 12th century. Tischendorf deciphered the undertext using chemical reagents in 1843-1845. One of the four great uncial codices.
C/04 · c. AD 450
Codex Claromontanus
Primary witness to the Western text of the Pauline Epistles. Contains a famous stichometry (list of biblical books with line counts) that omits Philippians, 1-2 Thessalonians, and Hebrews but includes Barnabas, Shepherd of Hermas, Acts of Paul, and Revelation of Peter.
D2/06 · c. AD 500-550
Codex Regius
Important witness to the Alexandrian text-type. One of the key manuscripts used by Westcott and Hort. Contains the shorter ending of Mark alongside 16:9-20.
L/019 · c. AD 700-800
Aleppo Codex (Crown of Aleppo)
Considered the most authoritative manuscript of the Masoretic Text. Written by the scribe Shlomo ben Buya'a and vocalized/annotated by Aaron ben Moses ben Asher, the foremost Masorete. Endorsed by Maimonides as the model codex. Damaged in the 1947 Aleppo riots.
A · c. AD 930
Leningrad Codex (Codex Leningradensis)
The oldest complete manuscript of the Hebrew Bible. Basis of Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia (BHS) and Biblia Hebraica Quinta (BHQ), the standard critical editions used by translators worldwide. Contains unique illuminated carpet pages.
L / B19A · AD 1008
Papyrus 52 (Rylands Library Papyrus P52)
The earliest known New Testament manuscript fragment. Demonstrates that the Gospel of John was circulating in provincial Egypt within decades of its composition.
P52 · c. AD 100-150
Papyrus 66 (Bodmer II)
One of the earliest extensive manuscripts of any Gospel. Contains numerous corrections by the original scribe, providing insight into ancient scribal practices.
P66 · c. AD 200
Papyrus 75 (Bodmer XIV-XV)
One of the earliest substantial NT manuscripts. Its text is remarkably close to Codex Vaticanus, proving that text-type existed by the early 3rd century. Donated to the Vatican in 2007.
P75 · c. AD 175-225
Papyrus 45 (Chester Beatty I)
The earliest manuscript witness to the text of Acts and the earliest known manuscript to contain all four Gospels. Part of the Chester Beatty collection.
P45 · c. AD 250
Papyrus 46 (Chester Beatty II)
The oldest extensive manuscript of the Pauline Epistles. Notably places Hebrews immediately after Romans, suggesting an early understanding of Pauline authorship. Omits the Pastoral Epistles.
P46 · c. AD 175-225
Papyrus 47 (Chester Beatty III)
The earliest known manuscript of the Book of Revelation. Contains 10 leaves with the middle portion of the Apocalypse.
P47 · c. AD 250-300
Nash Papyrus
Prior to the Dead Sea Scrolls discovery, this was the oldest known manuscript of any part of the Hebrew Bible. Demonstrates that the Ten Commandments and Shema were copied together as a liturgical text.
Nash · c. 150-100 BC
Papyrus Rylands 458
One of the oldest known manuscripts of the Septuagint, predating the Dead Sea Scrolls LXX fragments. Provides evidence for the early circulation of the Greek Old Testament in Egypt.
Rahlfs 957 · c. 150 BC
Muratorian Fragment (Canon Muratorianus)
The earliest known list of books considered canonical by early Christians. Provides invaluable evidence for the formation of the New Testament canon. Discovered by Ludovico Antonio Muratori in 1740.
Ambr. I 101 sup. · c. AD 170 (original composition); 7th-8th century (extant copy)
Great Isaiah Scroll (1QIsa-a)
The largest and best-preserved biblical scroll found among the Dead Sea Scrolls. One thousand years older than the oldest previously known Hebrew manuscripts of Isaiah. Confirms remarkable fidelity of textual transmission.
1QIsa-a · c. 125 BC
War Scroll (1QM)
Describes an apocalyptic final battle with detailed military instructions. Important for understanding Second Temple period eschatology and the community's self-understanding.
1QM · c. late 1st century BC - early 1st century AD
Temple Scroll (11QT-a)
Presents an alternative Torah presented as direct divine speech (first person). Rewrites Deuteronomy with detailed Temple construction and purity laws. The longest of the Dead Sea Scrolls.
11QT-a · c. late 1st century BC
Community Rule (1QS)
The foundational charter of the Qumran community. Contains the 'Two Spirits' theology and strict purity regulations. Essential for understanding the religious context of early Judaism and early Christianity.
1QS · c. 100-75 BC
Habakkuk Commentary (1QpHab)
One of the earliest examples of Jewish biblical commentary. Interprets Habakkuk as prophesying events in the life of the Qumran community, especially the conflict between the Teacher of Righteousness and the Wicked Priest.
1QpHab · c. late 1st century BC
Codex Laudianus (Laudian Acts)
One of the most important witnesses to the text of Acts. Believed to have been used by the Venerable Bede for his commentary on Acts. A bilingual manuscript with Greek and Latin in parallel columns on the same page, with Latin in the left-hand column. Donated to the Bodleian by Archbishop William Laud in 1636.
Ea/08 · c. AD 550-600